1.

-유대교를 철학적 개념으로 극복하고자 했고, 시간을 버리고(그에게서는 유사 종말론만이 발견될 뿐이다) 신으로 가득한 공간을 상정하고 사유. 끝내 부활의 세계를 보지 못했다. 

-토라를 세계 밖으로부터의 계시가 아니라, 자연적으로 구성되었음을 밝히고자 했던 '역사 비평의 시작'은 에피쿠로스와 유사한 법 개념에서 출발한다. https://www.radicalphilosophy.com/article/spinozas-law#fn1

 

“In the first few pages of chapter 4 of his Theological Political Treatise (1670), Spinoza defines his conception of the law.

It is striking what is elided in this distinction. Specifically, it does not say that the source or origin of divine law is revelation and that of human law is legitimacy or the sovereign as the one who has the authority to legislate. The two traditional sources of legality – a transcendent authority or the model of command and obedience – are absent from this definition.”

 

  '자연의 필연성'과 '개인의 의지'로 환원되는. 그가 법을 Ratio vivendi라고 말할 때 그러하다.

 

2. 아래는 ChatGPT와의 대화

 

스피노자(Spinoza) 17세기 유럽 철학자로서, 그의 철학은 실체(substance) 개념에 중점을 두고 있습니다. 스피노자는 실체를 "독립적인 존재체" 정의하며, 이는 자신의 존재를 유지하기 위해 어떤 다른 것도 필요하지 않은 것을 의미합니다. 이러한 실체는 자연적인 형태로 존재하며, 외부적인 영향을 받지 않고 자신의 본질적인 특성을 유지합니다.

 

스피노자는  종류의 실체를 구별합니다.  번째는 하나의 실체가 다른 실체로부터 독립적으로 존재하는 "신존실체"이며, 이는 유일무이한 하나의 실체로서 신의 존재를 나타내기도 합니다.  번째는 여러 실체들이 함께 존재하는 "모드"이며, 이는 단순히 신존실체의 다양한 변형이나 형태를 나타냅니다.

 

스피노자의 실체 개념은 그가 제시한 철학적 시스템의 중요한 구성요소  하나입니다. 이를 통해 그는 세계의 본질을 이해하고, 인간의 본성과 삶의 의미를 탐구하고자 했습니다.

 

Q. 데카르트의 실체 개념은 스피노자와 어떻게 달라?

 

스피노자와 마찬가지로, 17세기 프랑스 철학자 르네 데카르트(René Descartes) 자신만의 실체(substance) 개념을제시했습니다. 그러나 데카르트의 실체 개념은 스피노자의 것과 다릅니다데카르트는 "실체"라는 개념을  가지로 구분했습니다.  번째는 확실하게 존재하는 독립적인 실체(res cogitans)이며, 이는 인간의 마음과 정신,  생각하는 주체를 나타냅니다.  실체는 인간의 의식과 생각을 형성하는 기본적인 원리입니다.

 

 번째로, 확실하게 존재하는 물리적 실체(res extensa) 있습니다. 이는 공간을 차지하고 시간의 흐름에 따라 움직이는 물리적인 물체를 나타냅니다.

 

스피노자와는 다르게, 데카르트의 실체 개념은 유일무이한 실체로의 신의 존재와 같은 개념적인 측면보다는, 인간의 의식과 물리적인 세계를 분리하여 생각하는 것을 중요시킵니다. 이것은 데카르트의 유명한 문구 "나는 생각한다, 고로 존재한다"에서도 확인할  있습니다.

 

Q. 스피노자의 모드(양태)” 관해 자세히 알려줘

 

스피노자는 그의 철학에서 "모드"라는 개념을 중요하게 다룹니다. "모드" 실체(substance) 가지고 있는 변형, 형태, 특성, 성질 등을 말합니다. 스피노자는 모드를 실체의 변형으로 생각하며, 실체와 달리 모드는 독립적으로 존재하지않습니다. 모드는 항상 어떤 실체에 속해있으며,  실체가 없으면 모드도 없어집니다.

 

스피노자는 모드를  가지 유형으로 나눕니다. 첫째는 확실하게 실재하는 모드(modi actualis)이며, 이는 현재 존재하는 실체의 특정한 변형을 말합니다. 둘째는 가능한 모드(modi possibiles)이며, 이는 실체가 가질  있는 모든 가능한변형을 말합니다. 마지막으로, 불가능한 모드(modi impossibiles) 어떤 실체에서도 존재할  없는 변형을 말합니다.

 

스피노자는 이러한 모드의 분류를 통해 인간이 인식하는 세계를 이해하고자 했습니다. 인간은 실체와 모드를 구분하여인식하며, 모드를 통해 실체의 본질을 이해할  있습니다. 이를 통해 스피노자는 인간의 인식능력과 실재하는 세계 사이의 관계를 이해하고자 했습니다.

 

Q. 스피노자의 에티카 3 정리 요약해줘

 

스피노자의 "에티카 3 정리" 인간의 본성과 세계의 구조, 그리고 인간의 자유에 대한 그의 철학적인 이해를 요약한것입니다.  정리는 다음과 같은 내용을 담고 있습니다.

 

  1. 모든 것은 하나의 실체(substance)로부터 파생됩니다.
  2. 실체는 자신만의 존재 이유(reason for existence) 가지고 있으며, 이는 실체의 내적 본성에 의해 결정됩니다.
  3. 실체는 모두 같은 본성을 가지고 있으며, 실체는  본성에 따라 모드(modi) 구분됩니다.
  4. 인간은 자유의 본질을 가지고 있으며, 이는 인간이 자신의 내적 본성을 따르는 선택을   있게 합니다.
  5. 인간의 자유는 인간이 무한한 진리(truth) 발견하는 것을 가능하게 합니다.
  6. 인간은 이러한 진리를 발견하고 따르는 것을 통해 최종적으로 실체와 하나가   있습니다.

이러한 "에티카 3 정리" 스피노자의 철학에서 가장 중요한 개념  하나로 여겨지며, 인간의 존재와 본질에 대한 그의 철학적인 이해를 요약하고 있습니다.

 

Q. 스피노자는 부활을 언급한 적이 있어?

 

스피노자는 자신의 철학에서 부활이라는 개념을 다루지 않았습니다. 스피노자는 기독교적인 믿음과는 거리가 있으며, 자연과학적이고 철학적인 방법을 통해 세계와 인간의 본질을 이해하려고 했습니다.

 

그러나 스피노자는 실체와 모드라는 개념을 통해 존재의 원리와 변화의 원리를 설명하고자 했습니다. 그의 철학에서 실체는 하나의 본질을 가지고 있으며,  본질은 내적인 이유에 따라서 존재합니다. 이러한 관점에서 보면, 실체가 어떤 형태로 변화하더라도  본질은 변하지 않으며, 결국 실체는 부활하지 않는다는 것을 의미합니다.

 

따라서, 스피노자의 철학에서 부활이라는 개념은 다루어지지 않습니다. 그러나 그의 철학은 인간의 내면과 자유, 그리고세계와의 관계를 이해하는 데에  도움을   있습니다.

 

Q. 스피노자의 능산적 자연”, “소산적 자연 관해 설명해줘

 

스피노자는 "능산적 자연(Natura naturans)" "소산적 자연(Natura naturata)"이라는  가지 자연 개념을 제시했습니다.

 

"능산적 자연" 스피노자가 생각하는 실체의 본질적인 측면을 나타냅니다. 이는 살아 있는 것들의 내재적인 활동력을의미하며, 실체의 내면에 내재된 존재하는 이유(ratione essendi)입니다. 능산적 자연은 살아 있는 모든 것들이 가지고있는 내재적인 활동력이며, 이를 통해 살아 있는 것들은 그들이 가진 내재적인 이유에 따라서 자연적인 방식으로 움직이고 변화합니다.

 

반면 "소산적 자연" 실체의 외부적인 측면을 나타냅니다. 이는 스피노자가 생각하는 실체의 결과물이며, 이는 능산적자연에서 나타나는 내재적인 활동력의 결과물입니다. 예를 들어, 나무는 능산적 자연에서 나타나는 내재적인 활동력(, 생명력) 가지고 자라며,  결과로 우리는 나무를   있습니다. 이러한 나무는 소산적 자연의 결과물이며,  능산적자연의 내재적인 활동력이 소산적 자연을 통해 외부적인 형태로 나타난 것입니다.

 

스피노자는 능산적 자연과 소산적 자연의 구분을 통해, 실체의 본질적인 측면과 외부적인 측면을 구별하고자 했습니다. 이를 통해, 실체가 가지는 내재적인 활동력과 외부적인 형태 간의 관계를 이해할  있게 됩니다.

 

스피노자의 유대교 비판은 그의 대표작  하나인 "에티카"에서 확인할  있습니다. "에티카" 스피노자가 그의 철학적인 이론을 상세하게 서술한 작품으로,  작품에서 그는 종교, 윤리, 정치  다양한 주제에 대해 논의하고 있습니다. 특히, "에티카" 4 16-20조에서 스피노자는 유대교의 교리와 신앙을 비판하고, 인간의 영적인 삶을 발전시키는 방향으로 종교적 신념이 발전해야 한다는 주장을 제시하고 있습니다.

 

3.

  그래서 찾아본 에티카 4 16~20 in english. 이 내용에 유대교를 향한 직접적 비판은 없었다. 다만 스피노자가 말하는 "선악에 관한 지식"은 토라를 가리키고, 스피노자는 토라를 토라 없이 발견하고자 한다. 토라 없이 토라를 성취하는, 스피노자 자신도 의도하지 않은 새언약에의 접근을 발견할 수 있겠지만.

 

PROP. XVI. Desire arising from the knowledge of good and evil, in so far as such knowledge regards what is future, may be more easily controlled or quenched, than the desire for what is agreeable at the present moment.

선악에 관한 지식으로부터 일어난 욕망은 (미래가 무엇인가게 관한 지식 같은쉽게 통제되고 사그라든다 상태에 동의할만한 것을 위한 욕망보다.

 

Proof.—Emotion towards a thing, which we conceive as future, is fainter than emotion towards a thing that is present (IV. ix. Coroll.). But desire, which arises from the true knowledge of good and evil, though it be concerned with things which are good at the moment, can be quenched or controlled by any headstrong desire (by the last Prop., the proof whereof is of universal application). Wherefore desire arising from such knowledge, when concerned with the future, can be more easily controlled or quenched, &c. Q.E.D.

 

PROP. XVII. Desire arising from the true knowledge of good and evil, in so far as such knowledge is concerned with what is contingent, can be controlled far more easily still, than desire for things that are present.

선악에 관한 진정한 지식으로부터 일어난 욕망은 (우발적인 것이 무엇인가에 관한 지식 같은여전히 더욱 쉽게 통제된다.  상태에 관한 것들을 위한 욕망보다

*올람하바에 관한 내용과 연결되지 않는가? 선악에 관한 진정한 지식의 패배

 

Proof.—This Prop. is proved in the same way as the last Prop. from IV. xii. Coroll.

Note.—I think I have now shown the reason, why men are moved by opinion more readily than by true reason, why it is that the true knowledge of good and evil stirs up conflicts in the soul, and often yields to every kind of passion. This state of things gave rise to the exclamation of the poet:[12]—— "The better path I gaze at and approve, The worse—I follow."

[12] Ov. Met. vii.20, "Video meliora proboque, Deteriora sequor."

 

Ecclesiastes seems to have had the same thought in his mind, when he says, "He who increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow." I have not written the above with the object of drawing the conclusion, that ignorance is more excellent than knowledge, or that a wise man is on a par with a fool in controlling his emotions, but because it is necessary to know the power and the infirmity of our nature, before we can determine what reason can do in restraining the emotions, and what is beyond her power. I have said, that in the present part I shall merely treat of human infirmity. The power of reason over the emotions I have settled to treat separately.

 

PROP. XVIII. Desire arising from pleasure is, other conditions being equal, stronger than desire arising from pain.

기쁨에 의해 일어난 욕망은 다른 상태들과 같다. 고통에 의해 일어난 욕망보다  강하다.

 

Proof.—Desire is the essence of a man (Def. of the Emotions, i.), that is, the endeavour whereby a man endeavours to persist in his own being. Wherefore desire arising from pleasure is, by the fact of pleasure being felt, increased or helped; on the contrary, desire arising from pain is, by the fact of pain being felt, diminished or hindered; hence the force of desire arising from pleasure must be defined by human power together with the power of an external cause, whereas desire arising from pain must be defined by human power only. Thus the former is the stronger of the two. Q.E.D.

 

Note.—In these few remarks I have explained the causes of human infirmity and inconstancy, and shown why men do not abide by the precepts of reason. It now remains for me to show what course is marked out for us by reason, which of the emotions are in harmony with the rules of human reason, and which of them are contrary thereto. But, before I begin to prove my Propositions in detailed geometrical fashion, it is advisable to sketch them briefly in advance, so that everyone may more readily grasp my meaning.

 

As reason makes no demands contrary to nature, it demands, that every man should love himself, should seek that which is useful to him—I mean, that which is really useful to him, should desire everything which really brings man to greater perfection, and should, each for himself, endeavour as far as he can to preserve his own being. This is as necessarily true, as that a whole is greater than its part. (Cf. III. iv.)

 

Again, as virtue is nothing else but action in accordance with the laws of one's own nature (IV. Def. viii.), and as no one endeavours to preserve his own being, except in accordance with the laws of his own nature, it follows, first, that the foundation of virtue is the endeavour to preserve one's own being, and that happiness consists in man's power of preserving his own being; secondly, that virtue is to be desired for its own sake, and that there is nothing more excellent or more useful to us, for the sake of which we should desire it; thirdly and lastly, that suicides are weak—minded, and are overcome by external causes repugnant to their nature. Further, it follows from Postulate iv., Part II., that we can never arrive at doing without all external things for the preservation of our being or living, so as to have no relations with things which are outside ourselves. Again, if we consider our mind, we see that our intellect would be more imperfect, if mind were alone, and could understand nothing besides itself. There are, then, many things outside ourselves, which are useful to us, and are, therefore, to be desired. Of such none can be discerned more excellent, than those which are in entire agreement with our nature. For if, for example, two individuals of entirely the same nature are united, they form a combination twice as powerful as either of them singly.

 

Therefore, to man there is nothing more useful than man—nothing, I repeat, more excellent for preserving their being can be wished for by men, than that all should so in all points agree, that the minds and bodies of all should form, as it were, one single mind and one single body, and that all should, with one consent, as far as they are able, endeavour to preserve their being, and all with one consent seek what is useful to them all. Hence, men who are governed by reason—that is, who seek what is useful to them in accordance with reason, desire for themselves nothing, which they do not also desire for the rest of mankind, and, consequently, are just, faithful, and honourable in their conduct.

 

Such are the dictates of reason, which I purposed thus briefly to indicate, before beginning to prove them in greater detail. I have taken this course, in order, if possible, to gain the attention of those who believe, that the principle that every man is bound to seek what is useful for himself is the foundation of impiety, rather than of piety and virtue.

Therefore, after briefly showing that the contrary is the case, I go on to prove it by the same method, as that whereby I have hitherto proceeded.

 

PROP. XIX. Every man, by the laws of his nature, necessarily desires or shrinks from that which he deems to be good or bad.

모든 사람은 자신의 본성의 법에 의해서 좋고 나쁜 것을 희미하게  것으로부터 욕망하거나 욕망이 사그러든다.

 

Proof.—The knowledge of good and evil is (IV. viii.) the emotion of pleasure or pain, in so far as we are conscious thereof; therefore, every man necessarily desires what he thinks good, and shrinks from what he thinks bad. Now this appetite is nothing else but man's nature or essence (Cf. the Definition of Appetite, III. ix. note, and Def. of the Emotions, i.). Therefore, every man, solely by the laws of his nature, desires the one, and shrinks from the other, &c. Q.E.D.

 

PROP. XX. The more every man endeavours, and is able to seek what is useful to him—in other words, to preserve his own being—the more is he endowed with virtue; on the contrary, in proportion as a man neglects to seek what is useful to him, that is, to preserve his own being, he is wanting in power.

모든 사람은 더욱 노력할 수록 더욱 자신에게 유용한 것을 바랄  있게 된다.  자기 다움을 보유하게 된다. 그런데 이와반대로 덕에 더욱 헌신하면 할수록, 그는 자신에게 유용한 것을 거절하는 것을 추구하게 된다.  그는 권력을 결여하게 되면서 자기 자신을 보유하게 된다.

 

Proof.—Virtue is human power, which is defined solely by man's essence (IV. Def. viii.), that is, which is defined solely by the endeavour made by man to persist in his own being. Wherefore, the more a man endeavours, and is able to preserve his own being, the more is he endowed with virtue, and, consequently (III. iv. and vi.), in so far as a man neglects to preserve his own being, he is wanting in power. Q.E.D.

 

Note.—No one, therefore, neglects seeking his own good, or preserving his own being, unless he be overcome by causes external and foreign to his nature. No one, I say, from the necessity of his own nature, or otherwise than under compulsion from external causes, shrinks from food, or kills himself: which latter may be done in a variety of ways. A man, for instance, kills himself under the compulsion of another man, who twists round his right hand, wherewith he happened to have taken up a sword, and forces him to turn the blade against his own heart; or, again, he may be compelled, like Seneca, by a tyrant's command, to open his own veins—that is, to escape a greater evil by incurring, a lesser; or, lastly, latent external causes may so disorder his imagination, and so affect his body, that it may assume a nature contrary to its former one, and whereof the idea cannot exist in the mind (III. x.) But that a man, from the necessity of his own nature, should endeavour to become non—existent, is as impossible as that something should be made out of nothing, as everyone will see for himself, after a little reflection

 

4.

  이후 신학정치론.

 

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